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HUNGARIAN-ENGLISH LINGUISTIC CONTRASTS. A PRACTICAL APPROACH Transfer is usually unconscious: the learner is not aware of a problem and does not realise that s/he is following L1 patterns. They believe that they are using an existing and correct L2 form and are unable to repair even if they have time to reflect. In other cases, transfer occurs even when learners have acquired the rules of L2, but under pressures of communication, especially in the case of less thoroughly acquired structures or items, will tend to fall back on L1 patterns. This, again, is unconscious, but in this case the learner may be able to avoid transfer if they have time to reflect, using the monitor. An example of the first case, when learners will unthinkingly use direct and automatic transfer is the case of false cognates. At the beginner stage, few Hungarian learners will stop to think before using *alcoholist (the anglicised form of Hungarian alkoholista) when meaning alcoholic, or heavy drinker. An example of the second case is the use of he instead of she by advanced Hungarian learners of English under conditions of time pressure: since Hungarian has no gender distinction in third person pronouns, maintaining the distinction in English often requires conscious attention. Strategies or strategic transfer is different from transfer proper in that the learner is aware of a problem: they know that they lack the linguistic means to convey a meaning or find that they are unable to recall an imperfectly acquired structure or item. To overcome the problem, the learner consciously selects a strategy to convey their meaning. They do not believe that the form they are using corresponds to L2 norms, or at least are not certain (though they may hope that they have found, by sheer luck, such a form, i.e., they enjoy a free ride). The strategies used to achieve communication may or may not be based on L1 patterns (Poulisse 1993). Let us review the various possibilities of transfer and strategy use with the help of Tables 1 and 2. Before doing so, let us look at two terms: The term overt error means the use of non-existing grammatical or lexical forms (e.g., *cutted instead of cut, or *alcoholist for alcoholic) or the use of existing grammatical or lexical forms where they are obviously incorrect (his instead of her, use of the wrong tense, *bring up an example instead of give an example). The term covert error refers to a grammatical or lexical form that is correct in itself, but is inappropriate to the situation, and has a meaning different from that intended by the speaker. For instance, using high school to refer to főiskola (‘college’) is a covert error: it has a meaning inappropriate to the situation. Erroneous utterances do not always disrupt communication: the listener may understand grammatically or lexically deviant forms (*He thinked ...). Covert errors, however, may mislead the listener. + 32e
