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Inclusion and Exclusion: The Role of Photography in the Nation-Building Process in Bulgaria as retoucher and became a photographer, but there are almost no photographs personally signed by her. Ivan and Dimitar studied in different eastern and western European cities and had many work stays in Vienna, Paris, Berlin, and Venice (Pecev 1971; Boev 1983; Parvanova 2010). Photographs of Ivan and Dimitar were published in different magazines such as Illustration, Daily News, and Illustrated London News (Boev 1983: 112). The brothers trained in their own studios new photographers— Bulgarians as well as foreigners, such as Ksenofont Smrikarov, Ferdinand Grabner, and Moritz Kurtz/Curtius (Popsavova 1984: 24). The mobility roads of the third generation of the Karastoyanov family—sons of Dimitar and Rayna: Bogdan and Bozhidar Karastoyanov, who also became photographers—were multidirectional too. After finishing his studies at Robert College in Istanbul, Bogdan (“Boncho”; 1899-1962) studied photochemistry in Berlin and art photography in Paris, where he worked as a senior cameraman in the “Valery” studio. Returning to Bulgaria in 1927, he became a member of the Bulgarian Photoclub and in 1938, court photographer. Bozhidar (1903-1956) studied photography in Paris and Vienna and worked in the studio of G. L. Fréres Manuel in Paris (Parvanova 2010: 216-217). ‘The lives of the Karastoyanov family were integrated into different networks and interwoven systems; their interaction and communication connections were with different parts of the world. The photographic work of all three generations was embedded in a broader European context. The Nation-State Movement: Revolutionists and Fighters for Liberty In the course of the political development in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in Europe, the nation-state succeeded and the nation was emphasized as the central sign of a “civilized” political organization. In the civilization process, which was understood as a one-way linear development, the state came to play a decisive role. An example of this understanding was expressed by Hegel (1821), who defined the “transition (of a nation) from a family, a horde, a clan, a multitude, etc., to political conditions ... with objective law and an explicitly established rational constitution” as the only way to secure recognition “in its own eyes and in the eyes of others” (§ 349). “The same consideration justifies civilised nations in regarding and treating as barbarians those who lag behind them in institutions which are the essential moments of the state” (§ 351). The development of the national movements in southeastern Europe was integrated into the west European and central European intellectual, social, economic, and political development (Todorova 1997; Kassabova 2002). The stay of Anastas Karastoyanov under the name Anastas Stojanovié in Belgrade (1862-1877) coincided with one of the most dynamic periods of the Bulgarian national-revolutionary movement. The independence movement developed under the leadership of the well educated urban middle-class, whose power and influence were increasing. 113
