Oldal 37 [37]
Cross-LINGUISTIC INFLUENCES
In Table 1 (page 31), we can see that an utterance, a word or phrase produced
by the learner may be correct and appropriate (1.a and 3.a) and correct but
inappropriate (1.b and 3.b). Errors may be transfer errors, due to L1 influence
(3.b, 4.a and 4.b) or may be due to factors not related to L1 (1.b, 2.a and 2.b).
Errors may be overt (formally erroneous, ill-formed) or covert (superficially
well-formed, but inappropriate to the situation and the intended meaning).
It should be added that the influence of L1 may also play a role in 1.a: if the
learner has acquired a structure or a lexical item and can produce it in the
given communication situation, it may have something to do with their L1 if
its acquisition has been facilitated by congruence between L1 and L2.
In Table 2 we can see that the strategies used by the learner — just like
transfer — may or may not be based on their L1. As in the case of transfer, the
result of a strategy may be a correct L2 form. In this case, the learner has ac¬
cidentally come up with the exact L2 form that was required by the context,
i.e., they had a free ride. Strategy use may lead to well-formed or ill-formed
utterances, but even in the case of the latter we cannot speak of error — we can
only state that the strategy was successful or unsuccessful.
The notions of transfer and strategy are overlapping, and indeed, during the
evolution of applied linguistics there has been a lot of re-naming, re-interpreta¬
tion and confusion of the two concepts. The degree of consciousness is difficult to
establish. Hesitation may indicate strategy use, but when the learner unhesi¬
tatingly uses a particular L1 pattern, it is very difficult to decide whether we are
dealing with automatic transfer, triggered by strong attraction from L1 patterns,
or an L1-based strategy. For example, using *straw widow instead of grass widow
may be a case of automatic transfer (and may even be committed by a learner who
already knows the word grass widow), but may be the result of conscious literal
translation of the corresponding L1 compound, i.e., a strategy. In this way, the
two processes are very difficult to separate. In the case of positive transfer, the
learner may automatically transfer a pattern from their L1, e.g., adjective/noun
word order. Positive transfer may play a role in the speed of acquisition: if a Hun¬
garian learner is told that the English word for hattyudal is swan song, it will not
be difficult for them to remember that it corresponds word-for-word to the Hun¬
garian equivalent. On the other hand, contrasts may slow down the process of
acquisition. Hungarian nouns are in the singular after a numeral, and leaving the
noun in the singular in English after numerals is an error that seems to persist
with Hungarian learners. Mixing up he and she occurs with Hungarian speakers
even at the advanced level.
2.7 AVOIDANCE
In addition to transfer and the use of L1-based strategies, the influence of L1 may
also be manifested in the avoidance by learners of certain L2 structures or items
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