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HUNGARIAN-ENGLISH LINGUISTIC CONTRASTS. A PRACTICAL APPROACH
Transfer is usually unconscious: the learner is not aware of a problem and
does not realise that s/he is following L1 patterns. They believe that they are
using an existing and correct L2 form and are unable to repair even if they
have time to reflect. In other cases, transfer occurs even when learners have
acquired the rules of L2, but under pressures of communication, especially in
the case of less thoroughly acquired structures or items, will tend to fall back
on L1 patterns. This, again, is unconscious, but in this case the learner may be
able to avoid transfer if they have time to reflect, using the monitor. An exam¬
ple of the first case, when learners will unthinkingly use direct and automatic
transfer is the case of false cognates. At the beginner stage, few Hungarian
learners will stop to think before using *alcoholist (the anglicised form of
Hungarian alkoholista) when meaning alcoholic, or heavy drinker. An example
of the second case is the use of he instead of she by advanced Hungarian learn¬
ers of English under conditions of time pressure: since Hungarian has no
gender distinction in third person pronouns, maintaining the distinction in
English often requires conscious attention.
Strategies or strategic transfer is different from transfer proper in that the
learner is aware of a problem: they know that they lack the linguistic means
to convey a meaning or find that they are unable to recall an imperfectly ac¬
quired structure or item. To overcome the problem, the learner consciously
selects a strategy to convey their meaning. They do not believe that the form
they are using corresponds to L2 norms, or at least are not certain (though
they may hope that they have found, by sheer luck, such a form, i.e., they enjoy
a free ride). The strategies used to achieve communication may or may not be
based on L1 patterns (Poulisse 1993).
Let us review the various possibilities of transfer and strategy use with the
help of Tables 1 and 2. Before doing so, let us look at two terms: The term overt
error means the use of non-existing grammatical or lexical forms (e.g., *cutted
instead of cut, or *alcoholist for alcoholic) or the use of existing grammatical
or lexical forms where they are obviously incorrect (his instead of her, use of
the wrong tense, *bring up an example instead of give an example). The term
covert error refers to a grammatical or lexical form that is correct in itself, but
is inappropriate to the situation, and has a meaning different from that in¬
tended by the speaker. For instance, using high school to refer to főiskola
(‘college’) is a covert error: it has a meaning inappropriate to the situation.
Erroneous utterances do not always disrupt communication: the listener
may understand grammatically or lexically deviant forms (*He thinked ...).
Covert errors, however, may mislead the listener.
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