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46 IAMÁS Kocsis The background of ecological economics In a specific review of economic thought, attention must be given to scientific and philosophical realizations which were partially or completely ignored by early economic theories. The three most important fields of scholarship for our theme are ecology, environmental ethics (philosophy) and physics: together with economics, these areas constitute the main interests of ecological economics.? Ecology has developed from biology. Unlike biology, it tries to grasp living beings not individually but rather in their intricate interrelations with their animate and inanimate environment. The area occupied by living organisms on Earth (the biosphere) is divided into relatively independent units of varying sizes. Of special importance among these is the ecosystem, the smallest unit of ecological research. The living organisms of an ecosystem try to respond to changes with their constantly reorganized living communities (succession). This process results in a stable, resilient ecosystem via complex feedback processes. As living organisms, human beings are also an organic part of their environment’s ecological functioning, but in the modification of their natural environment — for the satisfaction of their own needs — humans have acquired incomparably greater power than all other species. Ecosystems modified or newly created by humans (the latter exemplified by agricultural areas, cities and water reservoirs) for the satisfaction of their material needs can be found everywhere. However, serious disorders can occur in the functioning of these artificial ecosystems which have a considerable — negative — impact on human beings. For example, an ecologically unsuitable agricultural system may lead to the depletion of nutritious materials in the soil, then to its erosion and desertification (Barbier 1989: 41—42). Back in 1865, Marsch set forward the thesis that the complexity and diversity of nature has value in its own right, because human beings depend on the environment. In his view, it is impossible to consider nature from one single aspect, notably, that it supplies us with material and energy for the economic processes (if this aspect is acknowledged at all). These “services” are only reflected in market prices when supply for them is outstripped by demand. This school of thought also finds it unacceptable that another important function of nature, its ability to assimilate waste or pollution produced by the economic processes, is taken by economists into consideration only when the economy has overburdened this ability (and, in this case, contamination appears as a negative externality — Barbier 1989: 34-35). Facing ecological threats may rightly lead one to the conclusion that preserving natural ecosystems and the broadest possible range of animal and plant species is imperative because the welfare of the human species can be expected to decline (anthropocentric reasoning). However, there are also serious ethical arguments in support of the position that considers nature as something more than a mere resource for the economy (Kelemen 2022). For example, accepting the intrinsic value of nature implies protection as a moral duty, because nature is the source of Among the several branches and sub-disciplines of ecological economics, this paper stresses the biophysical trend associated with the names — among others — of Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, Herman Daly and Robert Constanza. However, for a radical critique from a public policy perspective, see Malovics and Pataki (2022).
