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had been alive for centuries which allowed a far greater space in actual practice to the benediction activity which served the demands of the local believers. In Hungary, monks played a particular role in sustaining this subterranean practice — they have carried out extremely useful activity in transmitting the texts and living practice of mediaeval benedictions. The important role of monks is shown both by surviving MS and ‘semi-officially’ printed collections. It is no surprise that among all the monastic orders the role of the Franciscans, whose pastoral activity was so close to the people, is to be mentioned in the first place. The book of prayers and benedictions Arca Domini, which ran into a number of editions in the 18" century, also exudes a Franciscan spirit, as well as the Transylvanian collection Fasciculus benedictionum (1749), specifically related to challenges of the weather. We have definite data to show that Manuale benedictionum (1685), published in Einsiedeln, was also used in Hungary. Besides the Franciscans, Jesuits were also rather active in benedictions in this region. One of the most widely used books of benedictions, Fasciculus triplex (1739), is affiliated precisely with the Jesuits. This order was also active in the Catholic mission of 16-17" century Hungary and Transylvania. They were the first to venture into the lands occupied by the Turks and were fond of applying ‘miracles’ as their ‘weapon’. They badly needed this for converting people as well as confirming the faith of Catholic believers. According to mission reports, the fathers kept coming across possessed persons and people suffering from nervous disorders whom they cured through exorcism and various sacramentals (St. Ignatius’s water; relics images, medals of the saints; ‘Agnus dei’ wax medals, rosaries). Their activities were highly popular with the Greek Orthodox and even the Turks. The triumphant ‘mission narratives’ of their ventures, despite all their exaggeration and tendentiousness, clearly highlight the intensity and reception of the Jesuit practice of blessings/curses in the early modern period. Members of the third major monastic order in Hungary, the Benedictines, also took part in activities of this kind. The late 17° century MS book of benedictions which survived at the ‘holy mound’ of Pannonhalma (Sacra arca benedictionum, 1697) contains several special mediaeval type benedictions. These include blessing gold, myrrh and incense at Twelfth Day against ‘incubus and succubus, analogue-blessing of gold against jaundice; blessings against fever, epilepsy and bladder stone; and blessing rue, lavender, roses, camphor and sulphur with the aim of repelling demons. In terms of content, this MS book is clearly related to the medicinal practice of the early modern times, but medical devices and procedures were shrouded in sacred exteriors. These most important collections in Hungary (as well as a few scattered MS notes) constitute the corpus which contains, as far as the original intent is concerned, approximately 200 benedictions and exorcisms which take the form of prayers of varying length (from 10 lines to 10 pages). This fact in itself refutes 443
