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OCR
Cross-LINGUISTIC INFLUENCES Universal principles of acquisition concern, e.g., the order in which certain grammatical structures or morphemes are acquired, or the preference of learners for transparency in word building and compounding (in both L1 and L2; cf. Clark 1993). An example of inherent difficulty is definite and indefinite verb conjugation in Hungarian. As regards cognitive complexity, it is very likely that a complex sentence with a number of embedded subordinate clauses and preand postmodifiers is more complex than a simple sentence. Cognitive complexity can be observed in child language acquisition: children will acquire the more complex structures (e.g., the conditional) of their native language later. Non-linguistic factors — setting (naturalistic vs. classroom), — learner variability: age (children/adults), level of proficiency (elementary/ advanced), individual differences (e.g. differences in short-term phonological memory), — order and method of learning and teaching. Learning an L2 abroad, ‘picking it up’ as a child, is different from learning it in a school setting as an adolescent or an adult, with explicit instruction provided. The order of learning also counts. For example, if Hungarian learners are told to give full-sentence answers to yes-no questions, it will be later more difficult to get them to use short answers with auxiliaries. It is difficult to identify and separate the effects of all these factors. However, it is unnecessary to attribute a given type of error to a definite source, since in most cases errors are due to several interacting factors. Thus, the difficulties of acquiring the Passive Voice that Hungarian learners of English experience may be due to universal principles of acquisition, cross-linguistic differences and frequency of input. 2.4 TYPES OF L1 INFLUENCE The linguistic factors listed above as factors influencing SLA include L1-L2 contrasts at different levels. As a result of contrasts, cross-linguistic influences will appear. This term has a broader meaning than transfer. It captures the facts that negative L1 transfer (interference) is not the only way in which L1 can influence the learning of L2 and that L1 influence on L2 learning is indirect rather than direct, since cross-linguistic influences interact in complex ways with all the other factors influencing L2 learning. It has also been found that cross-linguistic influences operate both ways: an L2 may influence the learner’s use of their L1 (cf. Jarvis and Pavlenko 2008). There is no denying that interference is an important factor, but the conditions under which it takes place must be considered. The influence of the learner’s L1 on their L2 acquisition may manifest itself in several different ways. These are the following: + 27°
