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HEIDEMARIE MÜLLER-RIEDLHUBER the European Credit Transfer System (ECTS), the European Credit Transfer System for Vocational Education and Training (ECVET)?, and the European Taxonomy of Skills, Competences, Qualifications and Occupations (ESCO)* have been developed and are currently being used in, or further developed by, the Member States of the European Union. The attempt to improve the transparency of skills and competences, however, faces a number of challenges: language and terminological barriers; differences in educational systems (qualifications) and labour market realities (occupation profiles); diverse understandings of the concept of “competence” etc. In order to provide the basis for a common description standard for occupations’, skills, competences and qualifications at European level several transparency documents — such as the Europass CV and the Europass skills passport — guidelines and recommendations — for example, recommendations for the validation of non-formal and informal skills and competences — have been distributed throughout the Member states. At present the Europe 2020 strategy aims to “create the conditions for a more competitive economy with higher employment” through the delivery of “more effective investments in education, research and innovation” and by placing “strong emphasis on job creation and poverty reduction”.’ As a consequence of efforts to implement this strategy the concepts of lifelong learning and lifelong guidance have been developed and been attributed greater importance in Europe. The idea of lifelong guidance is promoted in many European strategy European Commission, ECTS information at the website of the European Commission, http:// ec.europa.eu/education/tools/ects_de.htm, accessed 14 October 2015. 3 ECVET Toolkit, www.ecvet-toolkit.eu/, accessed 14 October 2015. European Commission, ESCO, European Classification of Skills/Competences, Qualifications and Occupations. The first public release. A Europe 2020 initiative, European Union, 2013, 6, https://ec.europa.eu/esco/web/guest/escopedia/-/escopedia?p_p_resource_id=92b7abac-ef8946cc-aaca-7b9219920eeeESCO_Booklet_%2528PDF%2529.pdf, accessed 14 October 2015. J. Winterton et al., Typology of knowledge, skills and competences: clarification of the concept and prototype, Thessaloniki, CEDEFOP, 2005, 28. The International Labour Organisation distinguishes between the terms Job, Occupation, and Profession as follows: Job refers to “a set of tasks and duties performed, or meant to be performed, by one person, including for an employer or in self-employment” while Occupation refers to “a set of jobs whose main tasks and duties are characterised by a high degree of similarity. A person may be associated with an occupation through the main job currently held, a second job, a future job or a job previously held.” (International Standard Classification of Occupations Structure, group definitions and correspondence tables, ISCO-08 Vol I, Geneva, ILO, 2012, 11.) Profession is often used almost synonymously to occupation, but with a stronger emphasize on connotations such as professionalism, expertise, or vocation (cf. German terms “Beruf”: occupation/profession and “Berufung”: vocation/mission). Quotation from: European Commission: Europe 2020 web portal, http://ec.europa.eu/ europe2020/europe-2020-in-a-nutshell/priorities/index_en.htm, accessed 13 October 2015. * 140
