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ON DEMOCRACY — INTERPRETATIONS AND MISINTERPRETATIONS + The enfranchisement of women, in most democracies during the first decades of the 20" century, made all citizens politically equal , The 19403: Schumpeter’s ”Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy” redefined democracy as the competition between political parties for votes, and halfa century later, Robert Dahl’s theory ofcitizenship balanced procedural aspects of democracy (competition for votes) and substantive aspects (all persons must be entitled to political participation) s Francis Fukuyama-respondingtothemostrecentwaveofdemocratization, at the end of the 20" century — declared in his “End of History” democracy as the global winner in the conflict between different political systems* DEMOCRACY HAS WON — BUT WHICH DEMOCRACY? Since WW 2, democracy seems on the rise. But the question is: which democracy? As almost all existing political systems define themselves as “democracies” (including the People’s Republic of China), it is more than ever necessary to look behind the smoke-screen of democratic rhetoric. It may be helpful to follow Robert Dahl’s attempt to define democracy from its opposite: Democracy is not tyranny. In the tradition of Aristotle, Dahl sees three types of tyranny’: ¢ The tyranny of one person + The tyranny of a minority ¢ The tyranny of the majority The two first definitions are self-evident. And the tyranny of the majority- even if based on elections- can neither be called a democracy. It is the last definition that which emphasizes democracy as the majority rule plus basic entitlements for minorities: + Political minorities (especially political opposition) which must have a fair chance to become majorities s Ethnic and/or religious minorities which are to be respected in their specific identities. The minority rights have to be protected by constitutional arrangements and watched over by an independent judiciary (like the US Supreme Court or like they gave the last full measure of devotion; that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain; that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth”. * Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man, New York, The Free Press, 1992. 5 Robert A. Dahl, Democracy and its Critics, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1992. + 27e
